How convincing is Durkheim's arguement that organic solidarity is a Essay

How convincing is Durkheim's arguement that organic solidarity is a normal development of the division of labour in society - Essay Example According to Durkheim, certain social facts such as family norms, formal laws and regulations exercise a form of coercive power on the members of a society, and these exist independently from its members (Martin & McIntyre 1994, p.433). Presented as thus, these social facts are a part of society which are functional but objectively self-existent within a society. In The Division of Labour, Durkheim explored the way in which a society shifts from its more primitive state to a modern society; through the content of its moral rules and stances, and also through the solidarity of its nature. In relation to the former shift, he expressed law as an assurance of a society’s fundamental values, as the moral values attached to individuals by individuals borne of human dignity. He assigned law the unifying value of society, calling it a ‘glorification†¦of the individual in general†¦sympathy for all that is human’ (Individualism and the Intellectuals 1889, p.273). As a form of coercive power in society, law depicts society as a moral unit, and we feel the force of this coercive power when we deviate from it. This is not to say that we are constantly aware of the coercive power within society; through the sharing of similar beliefs and goals, we as individuals are able to create the impression that such collective beliefs a re our own. Yet how can the members of a society co-exist with a set of moral values which are not a sum of its members individual values? It is as though Durkheim describes us a blank slates, upon which our entering into society is drawn a set of moral values by this separate entity – does this not undermine any autonomy that we could possess as individuals? Just because moral rules are obligatory does not mean that they are not a creation of the collective values and beliefs of its individuals. How can it be a ‘collective common conscience’, (Division of Labour in Society 1893,

Trade Liberalization in China and Brazil Essay Example for Free

Trade Liberalization in China and Brazil Essay Debt crises and financial stability problems had been the major causes why some countries resort into imposing new economic programs such as implementing free trade which is also called trade liberalization. To lessen the limitations of a country on trade industries they have established has been the main point of the process called trade liberalization (Biz/ed, 2007).   Through this process, tariffs or the fee that the government charges to every importer of foreign goods, as well as trade barriers are reduced in order to allow more foreign investments on a country’s economy.   Ã‚   Through this, the host country would have the privilege of acquiring imported products with a lower price.   However, domestic and national industries are also protected and looked after from competitors such as foreign producers through protectionism.   In this way, local industries are protected through tariffs, other non-tariff barriers and quotas. The price of imported goods is increased by tariffs, which make the entry of foreign business competitors a difficult and expensive task.   Aside from tariffs, governments have also devised other ways of protecting their local market, calling these methods as non-tariff barriers.   One kind of a non-tariff barrier are quotas.   These are restrictive and protective moves of nations or local governments against the entry of foreign goods into their local market (Biz/ed, 2007). It would be beneficial, for the academe and all the economy governing bodies in the world to know how a modern economic policy, more specifically the economic trade liberalization policy, affects a previously existing economic body.   Not only would it help the academe and the governing bodies understand the policy even more, but would also make them realize how these policies affect the economy in various levels, both in the macro and microeconomic level. This paper would focus in the trade liberalization policy and how it affects a particular country, or in this case would be called an economic body.   This paper would not be able to mention all the countries that are presently implementing the economic free trade policy, because of practical reasons, so the researcher had resorted into using two well-known countries from two different continents to show how the aforementioned economic policy affects different economic bodies in different geographical and cultural contexts. This paper would not focus on developed countries because it would just defeat the objective of knowing how this said policy would affect those countries that have implemented it because of their need to use it as a means of increasing their economic, and eventually their political power in the international arena.   The two countries to be used as points of comparison, would be China, which is found in East Asia, and Brazil, which is found in the continent of South America. China is one of the most well-known countries when it comes in business.   Historically, it has been one of the world’s greatest political powers, even before the time when the Europeans set out into the unknown.   It has been economically active by trading goods such as garments, oil, spices and jewelries with its Asian neighbors such as the Philippines, Japan, Malaysia, and other more, even before the age when the Europeans discovered the different lands in the region. In the recent past, China had become less economically active because of its experiences of that lead to the minimal decrease of its political power in the international arena.   But today, because of its social, political and economic policies, it is slowly rising back to the top of the list of political and economic powers.   In this country, retailing has grown and underwent rapid changes over the years. And this retail process has played an important role when it comes to food production and/ or selling of food in their culture. China, being the world’s most populated country, having more or less 1.3 billion in population, tried to utilize this kind of capital.   Because they have a very large pool where they can get manpower, they have used this to use labor to their advantage.   Because of the lesser need to use machinery, compared to other countries, they have succeeded in lowering the market prices of the goods they have produced in dramatic rates.   They also used their manpower as their source of political power. But then, people in China are more likely to be savers than spenders and so, their market is steered by the price of their goods.   The price of every local product is where the imported goods have a hard time competing with because the imported products are much expensive than the other (Moustakerski, 2002).   This is because the price of imported goods considers the price of tariffs paid. In addition, China has also signed significant trade treaties under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS).   GATS is one of those contracts or agreements that include rules on investments in services and trade.   It covers services such as water delivery, health care, postal delivery, tourism, road building, municipal services, education and insurance.   The scope and range of GATS is broad and covers the regulation of government with regards to trade and services as well as government services in all levels (Glossary of International Trade Terms). These commitments include distribution services, tourism, telecommunications, banking, insurance, audiovisual and professional services.   Agreements regarding the distribution of goods and services are important, basically for merchandise trades since this kind of commitment would help prevent economic barriers from emerging through the control of distribution (Ianchovichina, Martin and Wood, 2000).   Also, with these, the process of trade becomes quite more complicated.   Again, these commitments entail changes and processes that may be difficult for some foreign country to get into another country and share their products to possible consumers. The commitments concerning the financial services modes may differ across countries and can also change over time.   These may include the following (Kono, et al., 1997): All measures on liberalization should be equal among World Trade Organization (WTO) members The members of WTO can not discriminate foreign and domestic firms, except when it is clearly said at the time by which it joined the GATS. Domestic policies must be available as well as unrestricted to everyone. Continuous process of liberalization or by which affiliated territories be in agreement enhancing the liberalized sectors and reduce exceptions within sectors in such a way that they commit to negotiating rounds in the future. Harmed countries can give authorization against the disturbing or violating country. Despite these, there are also important exceptions that should be taken note of: The different programs of the principal bank and / or other systems associated with the government that transmits money along with policies on convertibility that are not included in the GATS. Economical construct is also not liable to GATS and it is created for making sure governments of the host country may protect their local financial system as well as their participants through the application of prudential standards of the host country. The said measures do not necessarily comply with pledges of the right to use markets, national treatment as well as the preferred responsibility of a nation (Key, 2003). Other government relations that are not related to prudential measures are also exempted from GATS commitments except when they disobey necessary obligations (Kono, et al., 1997). Considering the different limitations, restrictions and qualifications on trading, selling and importing food made from foreign countries has been even more complicated.   The country’s infrastructure and legal systems are underdeveloped and the law or enforcement is often inconsistent and biased.   Thus, corruption among the people and protectionism of the locals has remained to be problems (Moustakerski, 2002). China’s share on exports have consist goods in which the country did not like in relation to their advantage in production.   Hence, the producers of goods that are exported had no economic incentives in order to broaden their international sales.   Also, with that, the ability of China to invest on imports that may involve technology which could have contributed to the country’s economic expansion and growth productivity has been impaired (Lardy, 2003). Considering China’s integration in the global economy and its progressive recognition of the principles of marketing has been encouraged by the United States economic and political engagement.   These developments helped relations grew deeper between the two countries – United States and China.   But these two countries have also caused friction between their relationships. In any case, the relationship between the countries has become essential to the countries’ economy.   Thus, China’s economy has grown closely to investment regimes and open trades of the world’s major economies.   Also, the gross domestic product (GDP) of China accounts 40 percent of their exports and so, the country has depended on its export sector’s growth to stimulate their economy’s modernization as well as to support and improve their standards of living (U.S. China Trade and Relations. 2006). The gross domestic product or (GDP) is the annual total value of services and goods by a certain nation and does not include the net factor income from abroad (overseas investments and interest and / or profits and the wages of workers. GDP is also an indicator of the economy’s status and includes the government purchases as well as total value of the country’s export and investments in the United States.   As what was aforementioned in this paper, countries that undergo economic crises make some alternative ways of coping with their problem, such as what happened with most Latin American countries in the early 1980’s. Most Latin American countries had resorted into having economic changes after they had experienced such problems, but Brazil was one of the latest countries to join the trend of making its national market a free market.     Just like in the case of China and the other countries that are practicing free trade, Brazil has been experiencing many large scope changes since the first time it practiced the said trade policy. With the start of the late eighties to the early nineties, there arose some issues in the political and economic arena about the consequences of the new economic policy.   Trade liberalization had three major environmental effects on Brazil, and on the other countries as well, namely; the scale effect, the composition effect and the technological effect (Antweiller and Copeland, 1998). The first one, the scale effect according to Antweiler (1998), â€Å"measures the increase of pollution generated if the economy were simply scaled up, holding constant the mix of goods produced and the production techniques.†Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This simply means that the increase or decrease of the amount of pollution produced by a certain economic body can be determined by the economy itself, depending on its course, whether it is scaling up or down. Just like in the case of Brazil, which is one large economic body that is in its course of upscaling its economy, it does not experience radical and abrupt changes in the rate of production of its goods and the techniques of production it has.   However, because of the fact that it had implemented free trade, its economy would be stronger than before, or in other terms scaled up, and also because of that, it would tend to be more polluted at the same time. The composition effect is another environmental effect that can be observed in Brazil.   This effect means that when the economic state of a certain country, as well as the emission intensities at a constant level, then that particular economy would tend to allocate more of its resources to the production of possible pollutants, consequently polluting the environment more. Brazil has an economy that is technically and relatively not scaling up, and the rate of the production of pollutants just stays the same.   Because of this, they are forced to allot more and more of their resources into producing more goods that they have to export like sugar.   This economic move thus increases the scale in which they have to produce the goods, which in turn increases the amount of pollutants produced by the manufacturing and the processing of these goods. And the last one is the technological effect, or what Antweiler (1998) calls the technique effect, claims that when everything else was held constant (emission intensity, mix of goods produced, production techniques, and the scale of economy), a possible increase in the intensity of the emissions would tend to heighten pollution levels.     In connection with the previous effects, and in connection with logic, the more pollutants an economic body produces, the more polluted it gets.   Because of free trade, more imported goods will come into the country.   Without even producing and manufacturing vehicles, one country can acquire a large quantity of those by free trade.   Also, they can acquire these vehicles even without increasing their economy.   And as everybody knows, vehicles that use gasoline and crude oil as their main fuel produce pollutants, because of this, it may become one way of increasing the pollution in that economic body. These three effects are good observations by Antweiler, because these seem to summarize, and in a way quantify some of the effects of the phenomenon of free trading, especially in those countries that had only resorted to the economic policy because of the immediate need to rise from their economic troubles.   Also, these effects can be used to describe and predict the possible effects of free trade policies on a particular economic body. It is known that Brazil is a major sugarcane producing country, having produced 1,324 million metric tons in 2004 (Earley and Earley, 2006).   It also came to a time that it dominated the sugar production in the world in 2004 and 2005.   It had also dominated in the exportation of these sugar products, even leading over the US, Australia and Thailand. According to one policy analyst, who focused on the liberalization of agriculture, the implementation of the trade liberalization as a structural adjustment program had been ideally conceptualized so the lives of the Brazilians would be improved both politically and economically.   But instead of doing what it was supposed to do, according to his analysis, the economic reform program had worsened the case, because not only did it make the poor poorer and the rich richer, it also â€Å"redressed† (according to the author) and widened the inequality between social groups (Cassel and Patel, 2003). Considering the Brazil’s relationship with other countries, it has established connection with that of the United States of America when it comes to ethanol production. The world’s production of ethanol has strongly grown because of the worldwide oil prices increase and thus, ethanol is being considered as one of the alternative fuels (Earley and Earley, 2006). As what was mentioned earlier in the paper, Brazil is among leading sugar producing countries in the world, mainly because it has acres of land area to use for planting sugarcane.   Ethanol can be made by using sugarcane juice, and then by fermentation, distillation, and dehydration of the end product, which is ethanol or E-85. A large number of vehicles in Brazil are now using ethanol as their main fuel.   Ethanol has also become a major fuel in the said country, providing almost 18% of the total amount of vehicle fuel.   Because of this, they have become the world’s leading producer of ethanol producer back in 2005 (Ethanol Fuel, 2007). The policies as a result of both international and national efforts to prevent and reduce greenhouse gas emissions had also increased interest in using such fuel and so, authorization on the use of ethanol helps the industry of the country grow.   Also, because trade liberalization means more products would come in, which would also mean that products would need to be transported from one point to another by means of a particular kind of highly durable and highly powerful vehicles.   And because these vehicles need to have more power, they utilize fossil fuel products as their source of power, which would eventually add up to the pollution problem of the economic body. A study with regards to Brazil has found out that, the country’s trade liberalization had an effect on employment rates. It was noted that there has been a negative effect wherein there has been a decrease in employment in different capital-intensive industries as well as a decrease on the labor-intensive industries in the country. There are some who claim that the decrease in employment is not necessarily attributed to the country’s trade liberalization because the trade reforms has been passed and implemented on a macroeconomic environment which was characterized by recessionary conditions and high inflation rates (Mesquita Najberg, 2000). But looking back at the basics, employment can be and is directly affected by the particular economic body’s economic status at a given time.   Because of this, the aforementioned claim may not be telling what really is happening, but only what is ideally to happen. Considering the stated information above, it can be inferred that China and Brazil both differ in ways of how they manipulate their trade systems in order to increase their economy and be known to their respective fields of interest and products.   Simply, the two countries aim to improve their economy and be able to increase their economy’s status in such a way that they would be able to have connections or be in association with other countries. Also, it may be good to hypothesize that trade liberalization can help an economic body only in the macroeconomic level, but it can also negatively affect the economy in the microlevel in the same time.   It can also be hypothesized that economic trade liberalization policies only serve the benefit of those countries that already have the economic advantage at the first place, because they already have the means of being the first ones to do trade with the countries that implement the economic policy. And last, another hypothesis that can be drawn from the previous premises is that free trade can be one of the modern economic policies that may endanger the previously existing local industries in a country, because it only gives the people more choices in the market, which would mean, greater diffusion and lesser concentration of the choice of goods sold in the market. References Antweiller. W., Copeland. B.R.   and Taylor. M.S. (1998). â€Å"Is free trade good for the environment?†. NBER working paper. Biz/ed. (2007). Trade Liberalisation: A Means of Promoting Growth in Developing Countries? – Activity. Retrieved, July 17, 2007, from http://www.bized.co.uk/educators/16-19/economics/international/activity/liberalisation1.htm. Cassel, A and Patel, R. PhD.   (2003).   Agricultural Trade Liberalization and Brazil’s Rural Poor.   Institute for Food and Development Policy/Food First. Earley, J. and Earley, T.   (2006).   Specific Environmental Effectsof Trade Liberalization: Sugar.   International Policy Council. Ethanol Fuel (2007).   Wikipedia.   Retrieved july 19, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fuel#Production_Process. Glossary of International Trade Terms.   Retrieved July 18, 2007 from http://www.afsc.org/trade-matters/learn-about/glossary.htm#wto. Ianchovichina, E., Martin, W. and Wood, C. (2000). ‘Effects of the Vietnam- US bilateral trade agreement’, Mimeo, World Bank. Key, S. J., (2003), The Doha Round and Financial Services Negotiations, (Washington DC: The American Enterprise Institute Press). Kono, M. and L. Schuknecht, (2000), â€Å"How Does Financial Services Trade Affect Capital Flows and Financial Stability,† in Internationalization of Financial Services ed. by S. Claessens and M. Jansen, (London) Kluwer Law International, pp139-176. Lardy, N.   (2003). Trade Liberalization and Its Role in Chinese Economic Growth. Prepared for an International Monetary Fund and National Council of Applied Economic Research Conference A Tale of Two Giants: Indias and Chinas Experience with Reform and Growth. New Delhi. Mesquita, M. and Najberg, S. (2000). Trade Liberalization in Brazil: Creating or exporting jobs?. Journal of Development Studies. Moustakerski, P. (2002). The effect of trade liberalization on China’s retail sector. Retrieved, July 17, 2007, from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3723/is_3_14/ai_84879835. Trade Liberalization and Employment (2001).   International Labor Office.   Geneva.   282nd Session. U.S.-China Trade Relations: Entering a New Phase of Greater Accountability and Enforcement. (2006). United States Trade Representative

Features of C++ in programming

Features of C++ in programming Ans1. Unique features of C++ : Encapsulation: It is the process of combining data and functions into a single unit called class. Using the method of encapsulation, the programmer cannot directly access the data rather data is accessible through the functions present inside the class. It led to the important concept of data hiding. Abstraction: It is one of the most powerful and vital features provided by object-oriented C++ programming language. The main idea behind data abstraction is to give a clear separation between properties of datatype and the associated implementation details. Polymorphism: It is the ability to use an operator or function in different ways. Poly, referring to many uses of these operators and functions. A single function usage or an operator functioning in many ways can be called polymorphism. Inheritance: It is the process by which new classes called derived classes are created from existing classes called base classes. The derived classes have all the features of the base class and the programmer can choose to add new features specific to the newly created derived classes. C++ better than C: Stronger typing: the type system in C++ is stronger than in C. This prevents many common programming errors coupled with the next very important feature, the stronger type system even manages not be an inconvenience. A Bigger standard library: C++ allows the full use of the standard library. It includes the Standard Template Library. Parameterized types: the template keyword allows the programmer to write generic implementations of algorithms. Data and methods to edit the data act as one entity i.e. by the usage of classes. Limiting scope of data i.e. by using private/public variables. Constructors and destructors for defining default behaviour of entities. Ques2. Demonstrate the use of Inline Functions and Function Overloading. Ans2. An Inline function is a function that is expanded in line when it is invoked. This kind of function is used to save the memory space which becomes appreciable when a function is likely to be called a number of times. It is used to eliminate the cost of calls to small functions. Normally, a function call transfers the control from the calling program to the function and after the execution of the program returns the control back to the calling program after the function call but in inline function, when the program is compiled, the code present in the function body is replaced in place of the function call. Syntax: inline datatype function_name(arguments) { function body } Example: #include #include inline float mul(float x, float y) { return (x*y); } inline double div(double p, double q) { return (p/q); } int main() { clrscr(); float a= 12.345; float b= 9.82; cout

Macbeths Demise in Shakespeares Macbeth :: essays research papers

â€Å"Macbeth† is an age-old tragedy by, William Shakespeare, that tells the story of the disastrous down fall of Scotland and it’s Kings. The protagonist, Macbeth, starts out as a thriving Thane in Scotland, but ends up destroying his own prosperity as well as Scotland’s. Certain witches who tell people their fate convince Macbeth that he will be King and that his dear friend Banquo’s children will be kings. In an effort to be sure his prophecy is true and with some encouragement from his rash wife, he kills King Duncan, the current king of Scotland. To continue on this path of destruction Macbeth, acts on impulse and has his friend Banquo killed, because he is afraid that he killed Duncan for someone else’s fortune. Throughout the play Macbeth’s degeneration continues until the tragic ending when the country turns against him and seizes his castle. Macbeth’s demise can be attributed to his abandoning his belief in fate for a ne ed to prove his masculinity. Macbeth’s doubt in fate is not realized until later in the play. When he first meets the â€Å"weird sisters† they make prophecies that he finds impossible to be true. â€Å"But how of Cawdor? The thane of Cawdor lives, A prosperous gentleman, and to be king Stands not within the prospect of belief, No more than to be Cawdor.†(1.3.73-75). Macbeth doesn’t believe this because he knows that the Thane of Cawdor is still alive and that King Duncan’s sons are the heirs to the throne. His need to be masculine has not yet effected his belief in fate. Once Macbeth becomes Thane of Cawdor he is completely convinced that the predictions of the fate sisters are true â€Å"I chance will have be King, why chance may crown me. Without My Stir†¦Come what may, time and the hour runs through the roughest day†(1.3.145-150). This is the most trust in faith he will ever have. Shortly after Macbeth puts all his trust in fate, Lady Macbeth challenges his masculinity. â€Å" What beast wasn’t, then, that made you break this enterprise to me? When you durst do it, then you were a man,† (1.7.49-51). This is Lady Macbeth’s response when Macbeth tries to back out of killing King Duncan. Almost immediately Macbeth’s personality changes, he decides to go ahead with the crime as if that will make him a man. Macbeth's Demise in Shakespeare's Macbeth :: essays research papers â€Å"Macbeth† is an age-old tragedy by, William Shakespeare, that tells the story of the disastrous down fall of Scotland and it’s Kings. The protagonist, Macbeth, starts out as a thriving Thane in Scotland, but ends up destroying his own prosperity as well as Scotland’s. Certain witches who tell people their fate convince Macbeth that he will be King and that his dear friend Banquo’s children will be kings. In an effort to be sure his prophecy is true and with some encouragement from his rash wife, he kills King Duncan, the current king of Scotland. To continue on this path of destruction Macbeth, acts on impulse and has his friend Banquo killed, because he is afraid that he killed Duncan for someone else’s fortune. Throughout the play Macbeth’s degeneration continues until the tragic ending when the country turns against him and seizes his castle. Macbeth’s demise can be attributed to his abandoning his belief in fate for a ne ed to prove his masculinity. Macbeth’s doubt in fate is not realized until later in the play. When he first meets the â€Å"weird sisters† they make prophecies that he finds impossible to be true. â€Å"But how of Cawdor? The thane of Cawdor lives, A prosperous gentleman, and to be king Stands not within the prospect of belief, No more than to be Cawdor.†(1.3.73-75). Macbeth doesn’t believe this because he knows that the Thane of Cawdor is still alive and that King Duncan’s sons are the heirs to the throne. His need to be masculine has not yet effected his belief in fate. Once Macbeth becomes Thane of Cawdor he is completely convinced that the predictions of the fate sisters are true â€Å"I chance will have be King, why chance may crown me. Without My Stir†¦Come what may, time and the hour runs through the roughest day†(1.3.145-150). This is the most trust in faith he will ever have. Shortly after Macbeth puts all his trust in fate, Lady Macbeth challenges his masculinity. â€Å" What beast wasn’t, then, that made you break this enterprise to me? When you durst do it, then you were a man,† (1.7.49-51). This is Lady Macbeth’s response when Macbeth tries to back out of killing King Duncan. Almost immediately Macbeth’s personality changes, he decides to go ahead with the crime as if that will make him a man.

Benefits of Electronic Medical Records

Benefits of Electronic Medical Records Stephanie Fine HCS/490 December 5, 2011 Cindy Perkins Benefits of Electronic Medical Records * â€Å"In 1972, the Regenstreif Institute developed the first medical records system† (Unknown, History of Electronic Medical Records, 2011, Para. 3). Since then, health care facilities across the nation are beginning to see the benefits that electronic medical records have on both health care providers and patients as well. This paper will discuss the benefits of electronic medical records for patients as well as one aspect relating to the values and importance of maintaining confidentiality when using this mode of communication. This paper will provide at least one reason this mode is an effective means of communication between consumers and providers and explain how this mode of communication differs from others. Finally, this paper will show how media and social networking change communication in health care as well as how electronic medical records can be used to market health care products or services. Although there are many benefits for patients and Electronic medical records this paper will focus on the top three. The first benefit would be that â€Å"Electronic medical records (EMR’s) help improve the care of patients and reduce medical errors in doctors’ offices† (Huckestein, 2011, Para. 1). This is because all of a patients medical records are kept in one place and access ed through a secured web portal by any provider that the patient must see. This leave less room for errors due to unspoken information that can be critical to the patient but forgotten to say to the provider such as allergies, medications, and previous diagnoses. The second benefit would be the ease of access. Most health care facilities that use electronic medical records also use e-prescriptions as well. â€Å"Prescriptions are electronically sent directly to pharmacies and are ready to be picked up after the office visit† (Huckestein, 2011, Para. 5). This helps to cut down on time and eroors made in patient medications. Along with quick prescription services the patient does not always have to wait for the doctor’s office to open to request information from their providers. â€Å"Patients may also be able to request referrals, prescriptions refills, and appointments through the Internet from their physicians’ offices† (Huckestein, 2011, Para. 5). The third benefit of electronic medical records for patients is the comfort of knowing that their medical records are kept safe , secure , and will never be lost. Keeping these records electronically, especially in the cases where patients can also gain access to them, means the patient won't be left without the records she may need† (Torrey, 2011, Para. 7). This is especially comforting to have if the health facility were happen to close or go out of buisness. The patient knows that he or she will still have all necessary records to continue with the health care that he or she needs. * While ease of access is very important, secu rity of electronic medical records is just as important. Health providers are required to abide by all HIPAA laws within the office as well as electronically. It is very important that not only health care staff but patients as well keep all passwords and user information to themselves and never reveal security information with others. This helps to ensure that all medical information is kept safe and free from identity theft and other crimes involving sharing or reveling medical information to anyone who is not authorized to view it. One reason this mode is an effective means of communication between consumers and providers the ease of access to all medical records in the event of an emergency situation. When a patient is well or seeing a provider for non emergency situations they are able to provide accurate information needed to help keep electronic medical records up to date. This data is kept in the same file and used to help the patient in the event of an emergency that perhaps the patient is unable to speak or inform the health prov iders of their medical history, medications, and or disease or illnesses they may have. At most, quick access to our records can be lifesaving if an emergency occurs and answers to those questions are needed during the emergency decision-making process† (Torrey, 2011). This can be very useful if the patient happened to be on vacation or out of town. It can â€Å"Provide a single, shareable, up to date, accurate, rapidly retrievable source of information, potentially available anywhere at any time† (Unknown, Electronic Medical Records, Electronic Health Records †¦ , 2011, Para. 12). * It is clear that electronic medical records are beneficial and different from any other mode f communication. This is because it is a direct link between both the provider and the patients. It is also set up to still be available regardless of a tragic event such as 911. Paper files, fax, and phone messages can be destroyed in a flood or fire but electronic medical records are here to stay. â€Å"Large scale EMR systems replicate their stored records in several places across the country so that one tragic event won't destroy them† (Torrey, 2011, Para. 4). * Another area that can be benefited by electronic medical records is health care product and service providers. Just like the ads one may find on social networks like face book and MySpace, ads for health care products and services can be place on the web portals that patients and providers use to obtain their electronic medical records. On the patient side, the patients can see new and upcoming health care products that they can discuss with their providers to help with medical issues. They can also see service ads for sites such as Web MD and the Mayo Clinic that help answer other questions they may have regarding healthier lifestyles and other information. On the provider side, there could be ads on new medications and drug reps that can help them decide what medications they would like to prescribe in their facility. * In conclusion, electronic medical records are a huge step forward in the health care world for both providers and patients. This paper has discussed the benefits of electronic medical records for patients as well as one aspect relating to the values and importance of maintaining confidentiality when using this mode of communication. This paper has provided three reasons this mode is an effective means of communication between consumers and providers and explained how this mode of communication differs from others. Finally, this paper has shown how media and social networking change communication in health care as well as how electronic medical records can be used to market health care products or services. * References Huckestein, D. (2011). Patients Benefit from Electronic Medical Records. Retrieved from IHA: http://www. ihacares. com/index. cfm/news-room/patients-benefit-from-electronic-medical-records/ Torrey, T. 2011, April 11). The Benefits of Electronic Medical Records (EMRs). Retrieved from About. com: http://patients. about. com/od/electronicpatientrecords/a/EMRbenefits. htm Unknown. (2011, September 14). Electronic Medical Records, Electronic Health Records †¦ . Retrieved from Open Clinical: http://www. openclinical. org/emr. html Unknown. (2011). History of Electronic Medical Records. Retrieved fr om http://www. nasbhc. org/atf/cf/%7BCD9949F2-2761-42FB-BC7A-CEE165C701D9%7D/TA_HIT_history%20of%20EMR. pdf * * * * *

Winter at Valley Forge in the American Revolution

Winter at Valley Forge in the American Revolution The encampment at Valley Forge took place from December 19, 1777 through June 19, 1778 and served as winter quarters for General George Washingtons Continental Army. Having suffered a string of defeats that fall, including losing the capital of Philadelphia to the British, the Americans made camp for the winter outside of the city. While at Valley Forge, the army endured a chronic supply crisis but largely remained as well fed and clothed as it did during the previous campaigning season. During the winter, it benefited from the arrival of Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben who implemented a new training regimen which transformed the men in the ranks from inexperienced amateurs into disciplined soldiers capable of standing up against the British. When Washingtons men departed in June 1778, they were an improved army from the one that had arrived months earlier. A Difficult Autumn In the fall of 1777, Washingtons army moved south from New Jersey to defend the capital of Philadelphia from the advancing forces of General William Howe. Clashing at Brandywine on September 11, Washington was decisively defeated, leading the Continental Congress to flee the city. Fifteen days later, after outmaneuvering Washington, Howe entered Philadelphia unopposed. Seeking to regain the initiative, Washington struck at Germantown on October 4.  In a hard-fought battle, the Americans came close to victory but again suffered defeat. Selecting a Site With the campaign season ending and cold weather rapidly approaching, Washington moved his army into winter quarters. For his winter encampment, Washington selected Valley Forge on the Schuylkill River approximately 20 miles northwest of Philadelphia. With its high ground and position near the river, Valley Forge was easily defensible, but still close enough to the city for Washington to maintain pressure on the British. The location also allowed the Americans to prevent Howes men from raiding into the Pennsylvania interior as well as could provide the launching point for a winter campaign. Additionally, the location next to the Schuylkill worked to facilitate the movement of supplies. Despite the defeats of the fall, the 12,000 men of the Continental Army were in good spirits when they marched into Valley Forge on December 19, 1777.   Reconstructed army huts at Valley Forge. Photograph  © 2008 Patricia A. Hickman Housing Under the direction of the armys engineers, the men began constructing over 2,000 log huts laid out along military streets.  These were erected using lumber from the regions abundant forests and typically took a week to build. With the arrival of spring, Washington directed that two windows be added to each hut. In addition, defensive trenches and five redoubts were built to protect the encampment. To facilitate re-supply of the army, a bridge was erected over the Schuylkill. The winter at Valley Forge generally conjures images of half-naked, starving soldiers battling the elements. This was not the case. This imagery is largely the result of early, romanticized interpretations of the encampment story which were meant to serve as a parable about American perseverance. Supplies Though far from ideal, the conditions of the encampment were generally on par with the Continental soldiers routine privations. During the early months of the encampment, supplies and provisions were scarce, but available. Soldiers made due with subsistence meals such as firecake, a mixture of water and flour. This would sometimes be supplemented by pepper pot soup, a stew of beef tripe and vegetables.   The situation improved in February following a visit to the camp by members of Congress and successful lobbying by Washington. While a lack of clothing caused suffering among some the men, many were fully uniformed with the best equipped units used for foraging and patrols. During the early months at Valley Forge, Washington lobbied to improve the armys supply situation with some success. Statue of Brigadier General Anthony Wayne at Valley Forge. Photograph  © 2008 Patricia A. Hickman To supplement those supplies received from Congress, Washington sent Brigadier General Anthony Wayne to New Jersey in February 1778, to gather food and cattle for the men. A month later, Wayne returned with 50 head of cattle and 30 horses. With the arrival of warmer weather in March, disease began strike at the army. Over the next three months, influenza, typhus, typhoid, and dysentery all erupted within the encampment. Of the 2,000 men who died at Valley Forge, over two-thirds were killed by disease. These outbreaks were eventually contained through sanitation regulations, inoculations, and the work of surgeons. Drilling with von Steuben: On February 23, 1778, Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben arrived in the camp. A former member of the Prussian General Staff, von Steuben had been recruited to the American cause in Paris by Benjamin Franklin. Accepted by Washington, von Steuben was put to work designing a training program for the army. He was aided in this task by Major General Nathanael Greene and Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Hamilton. Though he spoke no English, von Steuben commenced his program in March with the aid of interpreters. Beginning with a model company of 100 chosen men, von Steuben instructed them in drill, maneuver, and a simplified manual of arms. These 100 men were in turn sent out to other units to repeat the process and so on until the entire army was trained. In addition, von Steuben introduced a system of progressive training for recruits which educated them in the basics of soldiering. Statue of Baron von Steuben at Valley Forge. Photograph  © 2008 Patricia A. Hickman Surveying the encampment, von Steuben greatly improved sanitation by reorganizing the camp. This included the repositioning kitchens and latrines ensure they were on the opposites ends of the camp and the latter on the downhill side. His efforts so impressed Washington that Congress appointed inspector general for the army on May 5.  The results of von Steubens training were immediately evident at Barren Hill (May 20) and the Battle of Monmouth (June 28). In both cases, the Continental soldiers stood up to and fought on equal footing with the British professionals. Departure Though the winter at Valley Forge had been trying for both the men and the leadership, the Continental Army emerged as a stronger fighting force. Washington, having survived various intrigues, such as the Conway Cabal, to remove him from command, cemented himself as the armys military and spiritual leader, while the men, stiffened by von Steuben, were superior soldiers to those that had arrived in December 1777. On May 6, 1778, the army held celebrations for the announcement of the alliance with France.  These saw military demonstrations across the camp and the firing of artillery salutes. This change in the course of the war, prompted the British to evacuate Philadelphia and return to New York. Hearing of the British departure from the city, Washington and the army left Valley Forge in pursuit on June 19.   Leaving some men, led by the injured Major General Benedict Arnold, to re-occupy Philadelphia, Washington led the army across the Delaware into New Jersey. Nine days later, the Continental Army intercepted the British at the Battle of Monmouth. Fighting through extreme heat, the armys training showed as it battled the British to a draw. At its next major encounter, the Battle of Yorktown, it would be victorious. General George Washingtons headquarters at Valley Forge. Photograph  © 2008 Patricia A. Hickman